Cradle-to-Use Life Cycle Assessment of Sodium-ion Batteries: The Role of Electricity Mix and Regional Production and Usage

Despite their lower energy density compared to Nickel Manganese Cobalt batteries, Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) batteries remain prevalent in electric vehicles due to their safety, longevity, and cost-effectiveness. Sodium-ion (Na-ion) batteries present an alternative, offering comparable energy density to LFP while potentially providing superior environmental benefits [1] [2]. Both technologies are central to the transition toward sustainable energy storage, but a thorough understanding of their environmental footprints is essential for informed decision-making.

Preliminary research, drawing on existing literature and data, has assessed environmental indicators across the life cycles of LFP and Na-ion batteries. While LFP batteries are well-studied and known for their relatively low environmental impact, Na-ion batteries offer the advantage of reduced reliance on scarce lithium resources and broader raw material availability. However, uncertainties remain due to limited life cycle data, highlighting the need for further data collection to improve the reliability of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) comparisons.

This work presents an LCA sensitivity analysis of electricity mixes in different countries during the production and use phases of Na-ion batteries. The use phases are simulated using cycling aging data from literature and primary calendar aging data. Electricity generation is a major contributor to manufacturing and use emissions, with fossil fuel reliant grids producing significantly higher impacts than renewable-based ones [3]. This is relevant for Na-ion batteries as they could be produced more globally.
The work demonstrates that Na-ion batteries’ potential environmental impact is lower compared to LFP batteries from cradle-to-gate. The work also shows that the hotspot for environmental impact for Na-ion batteries is the use phase. Lastly, the work reveals that Iceland has the lowest impact due to the use of only renewable energy, followed by Europe and the USA in lower impacts due to the use of renewable energy. India has the highest impact, followed by China and Australia in higher impacts due to their high use of non-renewable energy.
This work supports the broader research goal of simulating battery performance and degradation under geographically representative conditions, while improving understanding of environmental trade-offs in global deployment.

[1] Glushenkov, A. Recent commentaries on the expected performance, advantages and applications of
sodium-ion batteries. Energy Materials. (2023). https://doi.org/10.20517/energymater.2022.70.
[2] S, Zhang. et al. Future climate impacts of sodium-ion batteries. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2023.107362.
[3] F, Degen. et al. Life cycle assessment of the energy consumption and GHG emissions
of state-of-the-art automotive battery cell production. Journal of Cleaner Production. (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.129798.